Modulation of Electronic Structure in Kraft Lignin-Derived Mo Single-Atom Catalysts for Optimized Electrochemical Oxygen Reduction

Abstract

The sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) remain a major bottleneck for energy conversion systems such as fuel cells and metal–air batteries. Here, the synthesis of molybdenum single-atom catalysts (Mo SACs) derived from abundant and low-cost Kraft lignin is reported. By tuning nitrogen incorporation during carbonization, agglomerated Mo carbide clusters are progressively converted into atomically dispersed Mo active centers anchored on N-doped carbon. Extensive spectroscopic analyses confirm this structural evolution, while density functional theory calculations reveal that the optimized Mo coordination environment downshifts the d-band center, enabling the balanced adsorption of oxygen intermediates and thereby improving the intrinsic ORR activity. Electrochemical measurements demonstrate enhanced half-wave potential, near-four-electron transfer pathway, superior selectivity, and excellent durability, with ≈85% current retention over 50 h. Beyond performance, the use of minimally processed Kraft lignin underscores both the economic and environmental advantages of this approach, offering a scalable and sustainable pathway to practical ORR electrocatalysts.